Browsing by Author "Obakiro, Samuel Baker"

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    Deciphering the molecular mechanism of aloe-emodin in managing type II diabetes mellitus using network pharmacology, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulation approaches.
    (Springer Nature, 2025) Obakiro, Samuel Baker; Kiyimba, Kenedy; Gavamukulya, Yahaya; Maseruka, Richard; Nabitandikwa, Catherine; Kibuuka, Ronald; Lulenzi, Jalia; Lukwago, Tonny Wotoyitide; Chebijira, Mercy; Opio, Moses; Tracy, Edeya Sharon; Kibuule, Dan; Oriko, Richard Owor; Waako, Paul; Makaye, Angela; Shadrack, Daniel M.; Andima, Moses
    Aloe-emodin (AE) has drawn interest due to its potential activity against type II diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, the mechanisms underlying its antidiabetic activity are not well explored. Using network pharmacology, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation studies, we investigated its molecular mechanisms in the management of T2DM. Potential target genes of AE were predicted using the Swiss Target Prediction (http://www.swisstargetprediction.ch/) database. The GeneCards, OMIM and DisGeNET databases were used to compile a comprehensive list of genes associated with T2DM. A compound-disease-target network was constructed, and protein–protein interaction networks were analysed to identify hub genes. Finally, molecular docking and interaction analysis between AE and the identified proteins were performed using AutoDock tools. Investigation of AE targets and genes associated with T2DM identified 32 overlapping genes. Gene ontology studies revealed that AE may exert its anti-diabetic effects by modulating glucose metabolism and enhancing cellular response to glucose. Furthermore, KEGG pathway analysis suggested that AE influences these processes by targeting pathways related to apoptosis, insulin resistance, and T2DM signaling. The core target proteins identified were TNF, ALB, TP53, PPARG, BCL2, CASP3, and EGFR. AE interaction with each of these proteins exhibited a binding energy of>−5 kcal/mol, with TNF showing the lowest binding energy (−7.75 kcal/mol). Molecular dynamics simulation further validated the molecular docking results with TNF and EGFR exhibiting a strong affinity for AE and forming stable interactions. AE exerts its antidiabetic activity through multiple mechanisms, with the most significant being the amelioration of pancreatic β-cell apoptosis by binding to and inhibiting the actions of TNFα. Further cellular and molecular studies are needed to validate these findings. Keywords Aloe emodin · Type II diabetes mellitus · Network pharmacology · Molecular docking In Silico Pharmacology (2025) 13:45
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    Drug likeliness, pharmacokinetics profiling and efficacy of polyscias fulva bioactive compounds in the management of uterine fibroids; an integrative in silico and in vivo approach.
    (Elsevier Ltd., 2025) Kiyimba, Kenedy; Munyendo, Lincoln; Obakiro, Samuel Baker; Gavamukulya, Yahaya; Ahmed, Ayaz; Choudhary, Muhammad Iqbal; Shafiq, Muhammad; Ul-Haq, Zaheer; Guantai, Eric
    Polyscias fulva is traditionally used in Uganda for the management of Uterine fibroids (UF). However, there is paucity of data regarding its efficacy, biological targets and potential mechanisms of action hence prompting scientific validation process through insilico and invivo approaches. In this study, we utilized network pharmacology, molecular docking, molecular dynamic simulations and invivo assays to investigate the drug likeliness, pharmacokinetics and efficacy of Polyscias fulva against Uterine fibroids. Four Polyscias fulva bioactive compounds; pinoresinol, lichexanthone, methyl atarate, β-sitosterol exhibited drug likeness properties with moderate safety profiles. Forty-eight (48) uterine fibroid targets were identified as potential targets for the eleven Polyscias fulva compounds. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis revealed four key targets (HIF1A, ESR1, EGFR, and CASP3). The KEGG pathway and GO enrichment analyses revealed that these key targets play significant roles in regulating the positive regulation of cyclin-dependent protein serine/threonine kinase activity, positive regulation of nitric-oxide synthase activity and positive regulation of transcription, DNA-templated. β-sitosterol demonstrated the strongest binding affinity with the four targets, showing particularly strong affinities for EGFR (−9.75 kcal/mol) and HIF1A (−9.21 kcal/mol). Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations revealed high stability in these protein-ligand complexes, with CASP3 displaying the lowest deviation and most consistent RMSD (0.14 nm) of the protein, followed by EGFR (0.25), HIF1A (0.29), and ESR1 (0.79). In-vivo evaluation on female Wistar rats with Polyscias fulva ethanolic extract showed an ameliorative effect of the extracts against monosodium glutamate-induced (MSG) UF. Treated animals exhibited a decrease in serum proteins, cholesterol, estrogen, and progesterone levels (P < 0.05) and the extract preserved uterine tissue histoachitecture as compared to controls. In conclusion, Polyscias fulva demonstrates potential ameliorative activity against UF with promising pharmacokinetic properties and safety profiles.
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    Green synthesized polyscias fulva silver nanoparticles ameliorate uterine fibroids in female wistar albino rats.
    (PLOS One, 2025) Kiyimba, Kenedy; Ahmed, Ayaz; Choudhary, Muhammad Iqbal; Rehman, Khadija; Hasan, Syed Mehmood; Jabbar, Abdul; Obakiro, Samuel Baker; Shah, Muhammad Raza; Munyendo, Were Lincoln; Guantai, Eric M.; Gavamukulya, Yahaya
    Uterine fibroids affect a substantial proportion of women in their reproductive age. Despite their effectiveness, surgical options such as hysterectomy are invasive, costly, and associated with recurrences. Pharmacological treatments are noncurative, only alleviate symptoms, and associated with adverse effects. Polyscias fulva (Araliaceae) is traditionally used to manage uterine fibroids in East Africa. In this study we synthesized Polyscias fulva silver nanoparticles (PFAgNPs), evaluated their toxicity and activity against monosodium glutamate (MSG)-induced uterine fibroids in Wistar albino rats. The UV-visible spectroscopy showed maximal absorbance at 425nm with adequate stability at varying temperatures, pH and storage conditions. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis revealed an average hydrodynamic size of 107.4 d.nm, polydispersity index of 0.264, and zeta potential of -18.3 mV. X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed the crystalline nature of PFAgNPs with an average size of 25nm while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed a spherical shape with an average size of 35nm. The PFAgNPs caused lethargy, hyperventilation, and hyperactivity at a dose of 300mg/kg BW, whereas 2000mg/kg caused severe toxicity, resulting in death in acute toxicity testing. The no observed adverse effect level was 50mg/kgBW, the lowest observed adverse effect level was 100mg/kgBW, and median lethal dose (LD50) was 1000mg/kg. The PFAgNPs significantly decreased (P<0.05) serum proteins, cholesterol, estrogen and progesterone alongside preservation of the histoarchitecture of the uterus. Further research is needed to investigate the clinical safety of PFAgNPs in managing uterine fibroids.
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    In vitro antiplasmodial activity, acute toxicity and phytochemical quantification of selected medicinal plants used for the management of uncomplicated malaria in eastern Uganda.
    (Elsevier Ltd., 2025) Obakiro, Samuel Baker; Nabitandikwa, Catherine; Kiyimba, Kenedy; Ocan, Moses; Gavamukulya, Yahaya; Andima, Moses; Lukwago, Tonny Wotoyitide; Maseruka, Richard; Chebijira, Mercy; Opio, Moses; Hokello, Joseph Francis; Kibuule, Dan; Nabatanzi, Alice; Orena, Stephen; Waako, Paul; Owor, Richard Oriko
    Ethnopharmacological relevance The emergence of artemisinin resistance and limited antimalarial drug access in Uganda has increased reliance on herbal medicines as complementary and alternative therapies. Indigenous use of Albizia coriaria, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Entada abyssinica, Maytenus senegalensis, and Kigelia Africana for malaria treatment is widespread but scientific evidence of their efficacy and safety was limited. Aim of the study This study aimed to validate the traditional antimalarial use of the five medicinal plants by evaluating their phytochemical composition, acute toxicity, and in vitro antiplasmodial activity against chloroquine-sensitive (3D7), chloroquine-resistant (Dd2) and clinical P. falciparum isolates. Materials and methods Phytochemical screening and quantification was conducted on 70 % hydroethanolic extracts from dried plant samples using UV–Vis spectrophotometry. The acute oral toxicity testing was conducted in Wistar albino rats using OECD 423 limit dose test. The antiplasmodial efficacy was evaluated using a 72-h SYBR Green assay on Plasmodium falciparum laboratory strains (3D7, Dd2) and clinical isolates. Results Alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and terpenoids were present in all the plant samples in varying quantities. Z. chalybeum was the most potent extract (IC50 0.81–1.28 μg/ml), followed by A. coriaria and E. abyssinica (IC50 10–50 μg/ml). M. senegalensis showed weak activity while K. africana was largely inactive (IC50 > 100 μg/ml). A. coriaria and M. senegalensis showed moderate acute toxicity (LD50 < 2000 mg/kg), while the other extracts showed no severe signs of acute toxicity in Wistar albino rats (LD50 > 2000 mg/kg). Conclusion Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Albizia coriaria and Entada abyssinica demonstrated promising antiplasmodial activity that supports their traditional use in management of malaria. However, more efficacy studies using in vivo models, sub-chronic and chronic toxicity studies particularly on A. coriaria and advanced phytochemical profiling are needed to delineate their therapeutic potential before being prioritized for development of standardized herbal remedies and novel antimalarial drugs.
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    Knowledge and practices of traditional treatment of chicken diseases using medicinal plants by indigenous communities in Najjembe sub-county, Buikwe district central Uganda.
    (BMC, 2025) Nabatanzi, Alice; Obakiro, Samuel Baker; Walusansa, Abdul; Nambejja, Cissy; Anywar, Godwin
    Background: For centuries, farmers in central Uganda have used diverse medicinal plants in ethnoveterinary medicine for treating chicken diseases. However, the unique plant species used, and associated ethnoveterinary knowledge had not been well documented. Hence this research reports the medicinal plants used in the management of chicken diseases in Najjembe sub-county, Buikwe District, Central Uganda to guide the advancement and sustainable use of these plants in the future. Methods: An ethnoveterinary survey was conducted among 150 chicken farmers who were purposively sampled from ten villages within Najjembe sub-county, Buikwe district from January to September 2021. Voucher specimens of the plants were prepared, identified and authenticated at Makerere University Herbarium. Numerical data summarized using percentages, frequencies, Informant Consensus factor (ICF) and paired comparisons. Results: All farmers (150), atleast used medicinal plants to treat chicken diseases, with majority of them aged 25 to 44 years (65.3%) and acquired this indeginous knowledge from family members (48%). Fifty-nine plant species were reported with the most cited or preferred being; Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f., (64), Capsicum frutescens L., (60), Nicotiana tabacum L. (55),Cannabis sativa L. (50), Bidens pilosa L.(12), Momordica foetida Schumach.(10). The plants belonged to 59 genera and 31 families: mostly Asteraceae (n=8, 13.6%), Fabaceae (n =5, 8.5%), Rosaceae (n=5, 8.5%), Myrtaceae (n=4, 6.8%) and Lamiaceae (n=4, 6.8%). Most medicinal plants were herbs (45.8%) and trees (25.4%). Leaves (66.1%) were the most used parts and were largely prepared as decoctions (38.9%). Most plant species had ICF greater than 0.7 for given chicken disease implying a high consensus in the community. Nicotiana tobacum L. had ICF values of 0.98, 0.98, 0.90, 0.98, 0.86 and 0.88 for swollen eyes, manson’s eye worm, eye infections, diarrhea, fowl typhoid and flue. The major challenges reported were failure to determine doses and scarcity of medicinal plants due to the escalating deforestation of Mabira Central Forest Reserve. Conclusion: There is widespread use of herbal medicines in the treatment of several chicken ailments in Najjembe sub-county, Buikwe District. The rich diversity of medicinal plants provides good prospects for development of novel ethnopoultry drugs that might provide a solution to the escalating global resistance against conventional chicken drugs. Although some of the species are exotic in Uganda, there is an urgent need to conserve the threatened plant species against increasing deforestation, climate change, human settlement and agricultural expansion. Keywords Ethnobotany, Ethnoveterinary, Medicinal plants, Poultry, One health BMC Veterinary Research (2025) 21:551
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    Perception of medical and nursing students plus clinical instructors towards objective structured clinical examination : a case study of five health training institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa.
    (Taylor & Francis, 2025) Kibuuka, Ronald; Mpasa, Ferestas; Kanyike, Andrew Marvin; Ndikom, Chizoma Millicent; Kaminga, Atipatsa Chiwanda; Owusu-Sekyere, Samuel; Ogah, Adenike; Amponsah, Abigail Kusi; Kiyimba, Kennedy; Obakiro, Samuel Baker; Munthali, Getrude; Msowoya, Wanangwa Kenneth; Kibuule, Dan; Phiri, Etta Chimbe; Baluwa, Masumbuko; Phiri, Tamara; Katuramu, Richard
    Background: Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) is the gold standard for assessing clinical competencies. However, resource constraints and logistical challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) hinder its effectiveness. This study investigated the perceptions and experiences of medical and nursing students and clinical instructors toward OSCE in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Methods: A mixed-methods sequential explanatory design was utilized involving 686 undergraduate health care students and 46 clinical instructors from Busitema University (Uganda), Mzuzu University (Malawi), University of Ibadan (Nigeria), Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (Ghana), and University of Zambia (Zambia). Quantitative responses were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 25, with comparisons between medical and nursing student responses made using chi-square test. Qualitative data were thematically analyzed. Results: A total of 686 students and 42 clinical instructors participated in the study. Majority of students 57.6% (n = 395, P-value <0.001) and 71.8% (n = 33) instructors recognized OSCE as a comprehensive tool for assessing clinical skills and knowledge, respectively. Among students, 80.8% (n = 554, P-value = 0.031), 66.6% (n = 457, P-value = 0.001), 66.6% (n = 456, P-value = 0.020) and 61.4% (n = 421, P-value = 0.001) cited anxiety, station timing, examiners’ behavior and content load as factors influencing performance. Of the clinical instructors 58.7% (n = 27) noted that it takes longer time to prepare scenarios, however 71.8% (n = 33) highlighted its objectivity. Students praised OSCE’s objectivity but criticized insufficient time on some stations and organizational issues. Facilitators cited objectivity and competence assessment but noted resource insufficiencies and student stress. Suggestions for improvement included mock OSCEs, training of clinical instructors, mixed method assessment and feedback to improve performance. Conclusion: In conclusion, while OSCE demonstrates significant strengths in promoting fairness in assessing clinical competencies, addressing logistical challenges, examiner variability, student anxiety, and timely feedback is crucial. Plain Language Summary: This study explored the perception of medical and nursing students and clinical instructors Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) in five sub-Saharan African health training institutions (Uganda, Malawi, Nigeria, Ghana, Zambia). We used questionnaires among 686 students and 46 clinical instructors, focused group discussions, and key informant interviews to find out their perception. Both students and clinical instructors mostly preferred OSCE because it is fair, organized, and tests real healthcare skills more than the conventional methods like long case. But students said the time on some stations was too short, stressful, and noted challenges during OSCE such as lack of some materials on some stations. Teachers agreed that OSCE is helpful but hard to do due to insufficient staffing and space. Both suggested more practice sessions through Pre OSCE, better training for teachers, and feedback to help students improve. The study confirms that OSCE is the most efficient way to evaluate nursing and medical students, however the study also highlights that a mixed method evaluation would be the best option for evaluation of clinical competence. Keywords: OSCE, health care professions education, Sub-Saharan Africa, medical assessment
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    Phytochemical analysis and toxicity evaluation of polyscias fulva stem bark extract using gas chromatography‑mass spectrometry, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, in silico, and in vivo studies in wistar rats.
    (Discover Toxicology, 2025) Kiyimba, Kenedy; Ahmed, Ayaz; Choudhary, Muhammad Iqbal; Obakiro, Samuel Baker; Gavamukulya, Yahaya; Guantai, Eric M.; Munyendo, Were Lincoln
    Scientific research on Polyscias fulva has demonstrated the plant’s pharmacological properties, including antitumor, antibacterial, and hypoglycemic effects, but there is a paucity of data concerning the phytochemical components responsible for these effects as well as the safety of Polyscias fulva. This study aimed to profile the phytoconstituents in the different solvent fractions of the ethanolic extract of Polyscias fulva stem bark using GC–MS and FTIR analysis, and subsequently evaluate acute and sub-acute toxicity effects in Wistar albino rats. GC–MS analysis identified 19 major phytocompounds. In silico toxicity prediction revealed the potential skin sensitization, eye corrosion, and respiratory toxicity effects of some of the identified compounds. Polyscias fulva ethanolic stem bark extract showed minimum acute toxicity in Wistar albino rats, with an LD50 exceeding 5000 mg/kg. Sub-acute toxicity testing did not show any significant biochemical or hematological toxic effects. However, dose dependent histopathological toxic effects were noted in the lungs with the lower doses (200 and 400 mg/kg) causing mild bronchitis with mononuclear cell infiltration, and the highest dose (800 mg/kg) causing marked peri-bronchiolar and perivascular lymphoid cell accumulation. These findings suggest the presence of pharmacologically active phytochemicals in Polyscias fulva with no major acute toxicity, biochemical or hematological toxic effects, but with lung specific dose-dependent histopathological toxic effects, and predicted skin and eye sensitivity reactions. Further research is needed to identify the specific phytochemicals responsible for its pharmacological activities and potential toxic effects, to inform its safe use in managing human ailments. Keywords Polyscias fulva · Acute toxicity · Sub-acute toxicity · GC–MS · FTIR
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    Phytochemical profile, antibacterial activity and acute toxicity of rhoicissus tridentata used to manage dog bites.
    (Elsevier Ltd., 2025) Mukasa, Paul; Ogwang, Patrick Engeu; Adaku, Christopher; Andima, Moses; Obakiro, Samuel Baker; Lejju, Julius Bunny; Ntulume, Ibrahim; Byamugisha, Denis; Ntambi, Emmanuel; Ren, Yuhao; Owor, Richard Oriko
    Dog bites often result into polymicrobial wound contamination, which pose several health risks including bacterial infections. In Uganda, Rhoicissus tridentata is traditionally used to manage dog bites, yet its secondary metabolite profile, antibacterial efficacy, and in-vivo toxicity had remained unexplored. Thus, the metabolites and the scientific evidence to validate the antibacterial activity and safety of the plant was limited. Identification of potent antibacterial agents could be crucial to manage dog-bite-related bacterial infections. The root extracts were analyzed using UHPLC–HRMS/MS—qTOF, followed by MZmine processing, and the metabolites characterized with GNPS Feature-Based Molecular Networking. For the first time, the high-resolution metabolomic approach resulted into annotation of 15 bioactive polyphenols like flavonoids, tannins. The antibacterial activity of the extracts was evaluated against standard strains of the zoonotic oral bacteria commonly associated with dog bites, namely: Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29,212), Streptococcus aureus (ATCC 25,932), Streptococcus mutans (ATCC 25,175), Proteus mirabilis (ATCC 25,933), Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 700,603), and Escherichia coli (ATCC 25,922). The extracts exhibited moderate antibacterial activity against all the strains. The MIC and MBC ranged from (0.78 to 6.25) and (1.56 to 12.5) mg/mL respectively. The MBC/MIC ratios were between 1.9 and 2, signifying bactericidal extracts. In vivo acute toxicity testing, the extract showed no adverse signs of toxicity at doses up to 5000 mg/kg (LD50 > 5000 mg/kg), suggesting a favorable safety margin. These findings support the ethnopharmacological use of R. tridentata in managing dog bite-related bacterial infections and merit further investigations on its bioactive constituents identified for future antibacterial discovery Keywords: Rhoicissus tridentata, Phytochemicals, Antibacterial compounds, Toxicity
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    Sub-Acute toxicity effects of methanolic stem bark extract of entada abyssinica on biochemical, haematological and histopathological parameters in wistar albino rats
    (Frontiers in pharmacology, 2021) Obakiro, Samuel Baker; Kiprop, Ambrose; Kigondu, Elizabeth; K’owino, Isaac; Kiyimba, Kenedy; Kato, Charles Drago; Gavamukulya, Yahaya
    Background: Whereas the efficacy of Entada abyssinica (fabaceae) extracts against various ailments has been scientifically validated, its safety has not been established. This study was undertaken to evaluate the toxicity effects of methanolic stem bark extract of E. abyssinica on biochemical, haematological and histological parameters of Wistar albino rats following repeated oral administration. Methods: Wistar albino rats of both sexes were randomized into groups and orally administered daily with determined doses (150, 300 and 600 mg/kg) of E. abyssinica methanolic extract using 1% tween 80 in distilled water as a control for 28 days. On the 29th day, all the animals were sacrificed and dissected to collect blood and selected organs. The serum and whole blood were assayed for biochemical and haematological parameters respectively while selected organs were examined for histopathological lesions. Numerical data was analyzed using graph pad prism and expressed as mean ± standard error of mean. The differences between the treatment and control groups were tested for statistical significance using one-way analysis of variance and/or Student’s t-test. Results: In repeated daily oral doses (150, 300 and 600 mg/kg), the methanolic stem bark extract of E. abyssinica did not cause significant alteration in majority of the biochemical and hematological indices. However, the extract significantly elevated the level of uric acid (all doses), aspartate aminotransferase (300 and 600 mg/kg), low density lipoproteins (150 mg/kg) and mean corpuscular heamoglobin concentration (all doses). On the other hand, the extracts reduced high density lipoproteins (150 and 300 mg/kg), mean corpuscular volume (all doses), haematocrit (150 and 600 mg/kg), mean platelet volume (150 and 600 mg/kg) and procalcitonin (150 mg/kg). In the vital organs, therewere no significant lesions observed except at the highest dose (600 mg/kg) where there was mild evidence of lymphocyte infiltration in the liver and focal interstitial nephritis. Conclusion: The methanolic stem bark extract of E. abyssinica is relatively safe in Wistar albino rats when repetitively administered orally in small doses for a prolonged period of time. We recommend more chronic toxicity studies and clinical trials on herbal remedies containing this plant to ensure that its use is free of potential toxicity to humans. Keywords: toxicity, fabaceae, traditional medicine, Entada abyssinica, biochemical, haematological, histopathalogical, wistar albina rats
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    Unraveling the therapeutic potential of tephrosia linearis : anti-inflammatory, analgesic activity, and molecular docking approaches.
    (Elsevier Ltd, 2025) Opio, Moses; Kiyimba, Kenedy; Nabitandikwa, Catherine; Maseruka, Richard; Wotoyitidde, Tony Lukwago; Andima, Moses; Chebijira, Mercy; Edeya, Sharon Tracy; Nabatanzi, Alice; Gavamukulya, Yahaya; Kibuule, Dan; Waako, Paul; Owor, Richard Oriko; Obakiro, Samuel Baker
    Background Inflammatory diseases such as arthritis affect over 300 million people globally. The current treatment mainly involves the use of Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) which possess several adverse drug reactions that are sometimes life threatening. This has prompted many patients to gain interest in plant-based remedies. Tephrosia linearis (Willd.) Pers (Fabaceae) is widely used in Uganda to manage symptoms of inflammation. However, there was a paucity of information concerning its analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and acute toxicity effects of ethanolic extracts from the aerial parts of Tephrosia linearis in Wistar albino rats. Methods Plant samples were collected from Katakwi District, Eastern Uganda and extracted using 70 % ethanol. Quantitative phytochemical analysis was conducted using UV/Vis spectroscopy. Acute toxicity was assessed using Lorke’s method, while analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated through Complete Freud’s Adjuvant-induced arthritis model. Three doses of T. linearis (200, 400, and 800 mg/kg) were compared with a control group receiving 20 mg/kg of diclofenac. Three marker compounds were assessed using in silico modeling to predict their pharmacokinetic properties, organ toxicity, and binding energy against selected protein targets involved in inflammation. Results The ethanolic extract contained significant concentrations of flavonoids (82.9 ± 0.1 mg/g), tannins (140.2 ± 0.9 mg/g), alkaloids (93.4 ± 1.0 mg/g), and triterpenoids (76.1 ± 1.5 mg/g). No toxic effects were observed at doses below 2000 mg/kg, with an estimated LD50 of 2692 mg/kg. The extract exhibited a non-dose dependent analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities that were significantly lower than that of diclofenac (p < 0.05). Molecular docking revealed strong binding affinities for apigenin, luteolin, and velutin with COX2, PLA2, and TNFα. Conclusion This study supports T. linearis as a safe herbal remedy for managing inflammation, suggesting further optimization through active ingredient isolation for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.